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Anglo-Norman Invasion
Donation of Ireland
In the mid-twelfth century the Church of Rome was in the process of claiming ownership of all land and islands and they used every trick in the book to achieve this. This somewhat bizarre claim was based on the Constitutum domini Constantini imperatoris, a document attributed to the Roman Emperor Constantine. The first part of this document, the Confessio, Constantine describes his conversion to Christianity and how this cured his leprosy. To express his gratitude he donated far-reaching privileges and properties to Pope Sylvester I and his successors in the second part, known as the Donatio. Constantine for example gave up the remaining sovereignty over Rome [..] or of the western regions to Pope Sylvester and his successors.
Remarkably Ireland, the land of saints and scholars, was on the top of the papal wish list. The Church of Rome was not exactly pleased by the successes of Saint Patrick and his followers. Paganism still flourished despite the countless conversions and laymen ruled the open monasteries. In the eyes of Rome Ireland, an island west of Rome on the edge of the known world, was inhabited by pagan, ungodly and rebellious rulers.
We have no idea whether or not Pope Adrian IV, sometimes called Hadrian IV, knew that the document attribute to the Roman Emperor Constantine was forged about five centuries after his death, but during a visit in 1155 from John of Salisbury, a counsellor of King Henry II, to Pope Adrian IV the latter actually donated Ireland to Henry II. Hence, King Henry II gained papal approval to invade and conquer the Lordship of Ireland. In return the King of England had to accept the doctrine of papal sovereignty and therewith the supremacy of the Church over the worldly authorities. In other words: the Pope became Overlord of Ireland.
Besides the ecclesiastical claim on Ireland there is at least one aspect which might have contributed to the Donation of Ireland, or Donation of Adrian. As it happens Pope Adrian IV was born in England as Nicholas Breakspear and he is well-known for his donations to institutions which had made his childhood miserable. We have no idea what misery the King of England had caused to the young Nicolas to deserve such gift, but coincidentally the King of England gained approval to invade and conquer Ireland from the only English Pope in history until now (given the course of events Pope Adrian IV will remain the only English Pope for at least the next centuries).
The Donation of Ireland is committed in a document known as Laudabiliter. Of course this document is controversial. Some scholars argue that the Laudabiliter is not genuine at all and fabricated at a later date. Others assume that the document itself is genuine, but that the story line is brightened up. According to them King Henry II asked for papal permission and he refused to recognise the supremacy of the Church.
Whether the Laudabiliter is a hoax or not, King Henry II was too occupied with extending and controlling his enormous kingdom on the European mainland. It took about two decades before Ireland attracted his serious attention. The invasion of Ireland in 1171 was not motivated by religion. On the contrary, by that time the relation between England and the Church of Rome was tensed.
Diarmuid MacMurrough
In Ireland a long-lasting conflict between Diarmuid Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster, and Tiernan O'Rourke, King of Briefne, came to a climax in 1166. For the origins of this feud we have to go back a forty years or so.
Completely unexpected Diarmuid became King of Leinster to great dissatisfaction of the Ard Rí, or High King of Ireland, Turlough O'Connor. O'Connor ordered Tiernan O'Rourke, King of Breifne and a seasoned warrior, to dethrone MacMurrough. The 16 year old Diarmuid did not stand a change and was defeated.
Eventually Diarmuid MacMurrough regained the throne in 1133 and even expanded his kingdom slightly. Once satisfied MacMurrough stood aloof from all the small wars in Ireland.
In 1152 Turlough O'Connor offered him an once in a lifetime option to engage Tiernan O'Rourke. We do not know why, but if you do email us. O'Connor and MacMurrough bulldozed O'Rourke's kingdom. Farms were plundered, his castle burned and the expedition ended as sudden as it had began. On his way home Diarmuid was informed that O'Rourke's wife, Dervorgilla, was nearby and he decided to abduct her. Dervorgilla, healthy and alive, was returned to Tiernan O'Rourke a year later.
O'Rourke never forgave MacMurrough the kidnapping of his wife and patiently he waited for an opportunity to settle the score. This opportunity came when Muirchertach O'Lochlainn, by then Ard Rí and protector of Diarmuid, died in 1166. Blinded by bloodlust Tiernan O'Rourke's fury roamed Leinster. Diarmuid MacMurrough barely escaped and with some associates he fled via Bristol to France.
In France Diarmuid met King Henry II and desperate he asked him to regain his throne. Henry II was certainly not unwillingly, but he still had his hands full with the French and Spaniards. Instead of support he gave Diarmuid MacMurrough a letter of recommendation. With this letter MacMurrough sailed to Richard FitzGilbert de Clare, the Earl of Strigoil, better known as Strongbow, in Wales. Strongbow offered his support for a price: he asked Mac Murrough's daughter Aoife, or Eva, and the right of succession to the kingdom of Leinster.
Probably the price was too high for Diarmuid. He continued his journey through Wales and assured support from several other nobles. For some reason he ran out of patient in 1167 and he set sail to Ireland with only a small army.
Initially this campaign was a success. Diarmuid conquered Ferns in the modern day County Wexford, but soon the push came to a standstill by his old enemy O'Rourke and the new Ard Rí Ruairi O'Connor, better known as Rory O'Connor. Diarmuid MacMurrough called his allies and led by Robert Fitzstephen, Hervey de Montmorency, and Maurice de Pendergast a more serious invasion force arrived near Baginbun in County Wexford. The Anglo-Norman Invasion had began.
The invasion force consisted of only 600 men, but among them were the famous Welsh longbows and a state of the art ring-armoured cavalry. They joined the remnants of Diarmuid's army and with 1100 men they captured Wexford on the Norsemen.
Strongbow
Tiernan O'Rourke and Rory O'Connor feared the sophisticated army of Diarmuid's allies and they decided to come to an agreement. They recognised him as King of Leinster and in turn he recognised O'Connor as Ard Rí. MacMurrough also promised to get rid of his foreign allies. However once tasted victory Diarmuid MacMurrough was eager for more. He was yearning to become the Ard Rí and he had no intentions whatsoever to keep his promises. He found a new ally in a close relative of O'Connor, O'Brian of Desmond, and supported by Fitzstephen they defeated O'Connor. O'Connor and O'Rourke were now really pissed and MacMurrough was about to face the full fury of the two comrades. In the eve of his destruction Diarmuid desperately urged Strongbow to take Ireland.
After sending a small vanguard Strongbow arrived at Passage on 23 August 1170. With approximately 200 knights and 1000 other men he captured Waterford and forced MacMurrough to fulfil his promise. By marrying Aoife Strongbow became heir of the thrown of Leinster and as part of the dowry Mac Murrough gave his stronghold on the Rock of Dunamase to Strongbow.
The battle centred to Dublin, by then a Viking semi-kingdom ruled by Askulv. O'Rourke and O'Connor joined Askulv at first, but left when the Vikings caved in and started negotiations with Strongbow.
Despite the ongoing negotiations the city was attacked by Strongbow's men led by Raymond Carew and Milo de Cogan. Dublin fell on 21 September 1170 and the establishment of a small Anglo-Norman colony, known as The Pale, marks the start point of foreign rule over Ireland.
The Pale
Both O'Rourke and O'Connor did their utmost to recapture The Pale, but Strongbow kept a firm grip on the city.
First he ousted the Vikings. Most of them settled on the north bank of the Liffey in Oastmantown, or Norse Town, now Oxmanstown.
The fortifications of the city were modernised and there is some archaeological evidence found on the grounds of Dublin Castle of a late twelfth century motte and bailey. It is believed that the name The Pale can be traced back to the palisade, which was a common feature of a motte and bailey.
After the death of MacMurrough in 1171 Strongbow became King of Leinster against the will of the people who supported MacMurrough's nephew and rightful heir Murtough. Murtough, joined by O'Rourke, O'Connor and O'Carroll of Ulster, raised several attempts to dethrone Strongbow without result. Strongbow had secured his position as King of Leinster.
Lordship of Ireland
In the meantime King Henry II got some serious second thoughts about the Anglo-Norman invasion he had agreed on just five years ago. He was horrified by the idea of England enclosed by arch-enemy France in the east, Spain in the south and a strong Anglo-Norman kingdom under Strongbow in the west. The Lordship of Ireland granted by Pope Adrian IV in 1155 suddenly came in handy. After all by this designation Ireland was his property, all he had to do was to claim ownership.
With an immense army of 500 knights and 4000 horsemen, foot soldiers and archers King Henry II set sail to Ireland and arrived in Waterford in October 1171. The main purpose of this display of power was to keep Strongbow's aspirations on the leash and to receive the submission of Irish chieftains. Without too much of a fight all Irish kings, except Cenel Eogain and Cenel Conaill, gave their fealty. Additionally King Henry II granted, to his men of Bristol, his city of Dublin to be inhabited, together with all the liberties and free customs they had at Bristol and throughout his entire land and returned to England.
Henry's generosity had no meaning at all outside The Pale. The Anglo-Norman authority outside the protected colony was non-existent. In fact after he had claimed his ownership King Henry II ignored the Lordship of Ireland until 1185 when he used the island to settle a case of sibling rivalry in the royal family.
John, his fourth legitimate son who survived infancy, felt neglected because all of his brothers had received territories from their father except him. To get rid of the nagging King Henry II granted John, appropriately nicknamed John Lackland, the title Lord of Ireland, by which the term Lordship of Ireland finally was formalised (after all: what is the meaning of a Lordship without a Lord?).
John's rule over Ireland was an utter failure and he left his land only six months after he had arrived. King Henry II, who is often depicted as a strong but fair monarch, obviously did not thought of John, a cruel and greedy young man, as his favourite successor, but by several twists of fate (Lady Fortuna really had to lean over backwards in this matter) John became King of England in 1199.
The term Lordship of Ireland was used until 1541 when King Henry VIII was granted the title King of Ireland, hence monarch of the Kingdom of Ireland.
Treaty of Windsor
Rory O'Connor, still Ard Rí, looked upon the fast expanding sphere of influence of the foreigners with great sorrow. Turning the tide with an armed battle against Strongbow, the powerful King of Leinster, the fortifications in Meath and Waterford and the bastion know as The Pale was doomed to fail and ruled out. In an attempt to stop the expand O'Connor started negotiations.
In 1175 Rory O'Connor and Henry II reached an agreement and they signed the Treaty of Windsor. By this Treaty Rory O'Connor became the monarch of all the unconquered areas of Ireland and in return he recognised King Henry II as his overlord and was due to pay him an annual tribute.
However, being Ard Rí Rory O'Connor was not entitled to make the decision to give up the Irish territorial claims. Remarkably only Tuaths, or Kings, were allowed to make such decisions, while the Ard Rí had no authority over the land as such. To tackle this issue Rory O'Connor had to abdicate his title and he became King of Connaught in which capacity he was authorised to surrender and to give up the territorial claims on Leinster, Meath, Waterford and Wexford.
When Strongbow died in 1176 the kingship of Leinster was transferred to Henry II and the fifth province Míde, or Meath, was included in Leinster.
Soon the title King of Connaught appeared to be of little substance. Without consulting O'Connor King Henry II granted large areas to Anglo-Norman and British Lords. Once settled the Lords usually never consulted King Henry II if they wanted more land. They simply took it. The actual impact of expropriations is debatable and subject of definitions. Some estimate that by 1250 the Anglo-Normans controlled about 75% of Ireland, while others assume that in the sixteenth century about 40% of Ireland was owned by Anglo-Norman and English settlers.
A period of eight centuries of foreign oppression had began for the Irish.